Pennington Publishing Blog

Perhaps no instructional issue in English-language arts produces more contentious debate than the issue of how best to teach grammar. When most of us refer to grammar we mean the structure of the sentence, the components of the sentence, word choice, the order of words, style, and usage. Some will also include punctuation, capitalization and even, perhaps spelling in the grammar stew.

All too often we bog down in our discussion over the issue of instructional strategies. Should we teach these skills explicitly through direct instruction? Should we teach these skills implicitly at the point of student need? Should we teach these skills in isolation? Should we teach these skills in the context of writing? What are the most efficient and effective means of instruction? Which instructional strategies produce the most retention? How can we differentiate instruction?

It may be that we begin, but quickly end the discussion of how to teach grammar because in posing these questions we are placing the “cart before the horse.” Perhaps a more useful starting point for our discussion would be to come to consensus about what we expect students to know and when. Establishing a common ground on this issue can help us determine what to diagnostically assess in order to determine our students’ relative strengths and weaknesses. Only at this point does it make sense to discuss the instructional strategies that will address the needs of our students.

This goal of consensus can be easier said than done. Teachers are inherently protective of their own instructional sovereignty. We all enter teaching to be “queens and kings of our own castles.” We are, by nature, independent thinkers. Collaboration requires some levels of releasing that sovereignty and replacing some of that independence with dependence. Additionally, we are all afraid of exposing our deficiencies. Many of us have received little grammar instruction and less training in how to teach the skills outlined above. Colleagues can be intimidating. It’s hard to admit our weaknesses. Much easier to keep our ostrich heads in the sand regarding grammar and focus our efforts on what we do know.

However, for the sake of our students we need to acknowledge our “elephants” in the room and begin to trust our colleagues. A climate of collaboration can be nurtured among teaching professionals. This risk-taking climate takes time and requires sensitive leadership. Group norms need to be established and practiced to ensure success. But, the results will be worth the efforts.

What Should Students Know and When?

At first blush, teachers will latch onto state or district writing standards. Fine as a starting point; however, standards only offer a basic blueprint for grammatical instruction. The devil is in the details. Defining these issues in meaningful ways that will impact both instruction and learning necessitates detailed conversations. We need to get specific.

It makes sense to establish a set of skills and expectations to be mastered at each grade level. Defining a specific year-to-year instructional scope and sequence (state standard are far too generic) with colleagues provides a game plan and also defines the content for assessment. These skills and expectations need to be hammered out in the context of vertical teaming and articulation. The complexity of English grammar and the recursive nature of grammatical instruction necessitate grade-to-grade level discussion and consensus-building.

At my middle school, we began the conversation with seventh and eighth grade teams. We then got release time to meet with our elementary and high school colleagues. We began the process of building a scope and sequence to help us move students from Point A to Point B to Point C. Our goals were to adopt a common academic language, establish grade-level expectations, and build in review to address the recursive nature of grammatical instruction. We found much more common ground on these goals than many of us had expected, especially because we have not addressed instructional strategies at this point of the conversation.

How Do We Know What They Know and Do Not Know?

Having agreed to 72 skills and expectations for our middle schoolers in our comprehensive instructional scope and sequence, we then began designing diagnostic assessments to inform our grammatical instruction. Our criteria for the diagnostic assessments included the following: The assessments must specifically focus on the 72 “common ground” components of our instructional scope and sequence. The assessments must be whole-class, easy-to-administer, easy-to-grade, and easy-to-record. The assessment components should be “teachable.” One such set of diagnostic assessments, based upon 72 “common ground issues” that we are using as starting points are my own multiple-choice Grammar and Mechanics Assessments.

Where Do We Go from Here?

Having established what students need to know and when, and having developed diagnostic assessments to determine what students do and do not know, the real fun begins. At this point, we are beginning the process of sharing the instructional strategies that seem to best meet the needs of our students. Explicit or implicit instructional strategies? How can we establish benchmarks to formatively assess skill acquisition?  How can we differentiate instruction, according to the results of our assessments?

Why not make sense of grammar instruction with a curriculum that will help you efficiently integrate grammar into writing instruction? Throw away your ineffective D.O.L. openers and last-minute grammar test-prep practice, and teach all the grammar, mechanics, and spelling that most students need in 75 minutes per week. Teaching Grammar and Mechanics, provides a coherent scope and sequence of 64 no-prep Sentence Lifting lessons with Teacher Tips and Hints for the grammatically-challenged. The mechanics and grammar skills complement those found in the 72 TGM Worksheets and target the diagnostic needs indicated by the multiple-choice TGM Grammar and Mechanics Diagnostic Assessments.

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Within the field of English-language arts, there is probably no more contentious curricular issue than that of how to teach grammar. The “Reading Wars” and “Writing Wars” get all the press, but teachers are much more unified in their teaching philosophy and instructional practice in those areas, than they are with respect to “The Great Grammar Debate.” I have previously written about why teachers avoid teaching grammar, but plan to boldly advocate how to teach grammar in this article. However, some consensus-building is necessary before I do so.

Definitions

Grammar has come to mean a catch-all term that refers to everything English teachers would prefer to avoid teaching. Essentially, grammar includes the part of a sentence, the function of these parts (such as the parts of speech), the arrangement of words with the sentence, word choice, punctuation, and capitalization. Grammar is the study of how our language is used and how it can be manipulated to achieve meaning.

Most of us would agree with these… 21 Curricular Assumptions

1. We should teach grammar. Whether grammar is chiefly taught or caught is beside the point. When it is simply caught by students, “They dint always catched it very good.” Grammar as it is caught must be complemented by a grammar that is taught.

2. Grammar should, as much as is practical, be integrated with authentic writing instruction. Students learn best when instruction is perceived and practiced as being relevant to their needs.

3. Not all students have the same grammatical skill-set. Simply teaching grade-level standards is not enough. We teach content, but we also teach students. We need to both “keep them up” and “catch them up.” It makes sense to develop and administer diagnostic assessments to determine who does and does not need extra instruction and in what skill areas. Yes, we need to differentiate our grammar instruction.

4. Both part to whole and whole to part instruction will work. We learn grammar from writing, but we also learn writing from grammar.

5. Grammatical instruction is necessarily “recursive.” Students need both the review and the new. Solid foundations require maintenance as much as does any new construction. You know the teacher(s) before you taught those parts of speech, even though some of your students still don’t know them.

6. Layered, sequenced instruction makes sense. An establish scope and sequence makes more sense than a “shotgun” approach. Students need to understand the function of an adverb before they can write adverbial clauses.

7. Teaching grammar is more than test prep. In fact, too much of most teachers’ grammar instruction (not you, of course) is testing, rather than teaching. However, we live in the real world. Consider the timing of your standardized test when planning your instructional scope and sequence.

8. Grammatical instruction is more than just error analysis or correction. Grammar and mechanics instruction cannot exclusively be relegated to end of writing process as mere editing skills.

9. The fancy names for grammatical constructions are less important than knowing how to use these constructions in one’s own writing. However, memorization of the key terminology and definitions of grammar provides a common language of instruction. Of course, use of the verbage needs to be age appropriate. A fourth-grade teacher should be able to say, “Notice how the author’s use of the adverb at the start of the verse helps us see how the old woman walks.” A high school teacher should be able to say, “Notice how the author’s use of the past perfect progressive indicates a continuous action completed at some time in the past.”

10. Analyzing both good and bad writing is instructive. Sentence modeling and error analysis in the context of real writing, both by published authors and your own students, can work hand-in-hand to provide inspiration and perspiration.

11. Writers manipulate grammar in different ways and at different points of the writing process.

12. One’s knowledge and experience with grammar helps shape one’s writing style and voice.

13. Degree of oral proficiency in grammar impacts writing ability.

14. Direct instruction is not enough—coaching is necessary to teach students how to write. The “sage on the stage” has to be complemented with the “guide on the side.”

15. Identification of grammatical constructions can help students apply these in their own writing, but exclusive practice in identification will not magically translate to correct application. If students can readily identify discrete elements of language, say prepositional phrases, they will more likely be able to replicate and manipulate these grammatical constructions in their own writing. However, students need to practice writing prepositional phrases in the context of real writing to solidify the connection between identification and application.

16.  There are certain grammar rules worth teaching.  If students understand and practice the grammatical rules and their exceptions, they will more likely be able to write with fewer errors. Knowing the rule that a subject case pronoun follows a “to-be” verb will help a student avoid saying or writing “It is me,” instead of the correct construction “It is I.”

17.  Some grammar instruction gets better “bang for the buck” than other. Teaching the most common errors certainly makes sense.

18. Grammar can be learned by students with different learning styles, with auditory or visual processing challenges. While it may be true that students learn language differently, at different rates, and vary in proficiency, there has been no research to show that some students cannot learn grammar.

19. What we say shouldn’t always be the way that we write. Distrust one’s own oral language as a grammatical filter. “Whoever John gives the ring to will complain” sounds correct, but “To whomever John gives the ring, he or she will complain” is correct. Knowing pronoun case and the proper use of prepositions will override the colloquialisms of oral language.

20. English grammar can be learned by second language learners. Some teachers think that students who speak other languages get confused between the primary language and English grammars. The research proves otherwise. Intuitively, many of us have significantly increased our own knowledge of English grammar by taking a foreign language.emergency treatment and long term care. However, teaching ESL students requires special consideration.

21. Teaching grammar shouldn’t take up an entire English-language arts course. Most of us would say about 20% or less of our instructional time.

How to Teach Grammar in Four Simple Steps

1. Develop a Plan

Establish a coherent scope and sequence of instruction with your colleagues, including those who precede and those who follow you. Base your plan on your more general state standards, but get as specific as possible. I suggest integrating grammar, mechanics, and spelling instruction into the plan. Include both “review” and “new” layered skills. Here’s a very workable model by terms: Grammar Scope and Sequence

2. Do Direct Instruction “Sage on the Stage”

Allocate 15 minutes, 2 days per week, to direct instruction of the skills dictated by your scope and sequence, say on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Find resources that will teach both sentence modeling and error analysis. Daily Oral Language will not get this done. Require students to practice what has been learned and formatively assess their skill acquisition.

3. Do Differentiated Instruction “Guide on the Side”

Use an effective diagnostic assessment to identify grammatical and mechanical skills that your students should already know. Chart their deficits and find brief, targeted instruction that students can independently practice. Develop brief formative assessments for each skill. Allocate 15 minutes, 2 days per week, of teacher-student mini-conferences to review their practice and grade their formative assessments, say on Wednesdays and Fridays. Have students keep track of their own mastery of these skills on progress monitoring charts. Re-teach and re-assess skills not-yet-mastered.

4. Do Independent Practice

Require students to practice the grammatical skills introduced in your direct instruction in their writing that very week. For example, if teaching adverbs, on Monday, students can be required to write three adverb sentence openers in the story, letter, essay, or poem they compose on Tuesday.

Why not make sense of grammar instruction with a curriculum that will help you efficiently integrate grammar into writing instruction? Throw away your ineffective D.O.L. openers and last-minute grammar test-prep practice, and teach all the grammar, mechanics, and spelling that most students need in 75 minutes per week. Teaching Grammar and Mechanics, provides a coherent scope and sequence of 64 no-prep Sentence Lifting lessons with Teacher Tips and Hints for the grammatically-challenged. The mechanics and grammar skills complement those found in the 72 TGM Worksheets and target the diagnostic needs indicated by the multiple-choice TGM Grammar and Mechanics Diagnostic Assessments.

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First of all, grammar is a lot like Kleenex®. This brand name has been associated with many other similar products. If I ask my wife to “Please pass a Kleenex®, I would probably get irritated if she responded, “Is a generic tissue okay?” After all, I just want to blow my nose.

So, let’s agree on what we mean by teaching grammar. Grammar has come to mean a catch-all term that refers to everything English teachers would prefer to avoid teaching. This includes the part of a sentence, the function of these parts (such as the parts of speech), the arrangement of words with the sentence, word choice, punctuation, and capitalization, and assorted oddities that we think students should know, but wish they learned elsewhere. But, why do most English-language arts teachers detest teaching this collection of instructional essentials that we label as grammar?

1. We fear the unknown. ELA teachers live in the day-to-day fear that one of our colleagues might ask us how we incorporate teaching past perfect participles in our persuasive essays. Teachers naturally tend to avoid teaching things that they do not understand. Most ELA teachers were trained to love literature, poetry, and writing (or at least one of the three). Few were trained in teaching grammar. Some of us have picked up a few tidbits here and there over the years or were educated in Catholic schools.

2. There is not enough time. Teachers have their comprehensive lists of standards and courses of study on their “to-do” lists. There are pressures from administrators, the omnipresent district or state testing, and our own colleagues to check off items on these lists. Of course, we have our  favorite novels and projects. Grammar instruction does not even make our Letterman’s Top Ten. “If I had unlimited time… then, maybe. But to be honest… Socratic Seminars, readers theater, and that Steinbeck novel would probably shove their way into my lesson plans first.”

3. The “research” says not to teach grammar. We trot out a “sound bites” from a study or two as convenient excuses to avoid teaching grammar. We gloss over the real language of the research conclusions, i.e., “teaching grammar in isolation outside of the meaningful context of writing is ineffective.” Some teachers do parrot these research conclusions accurately, but few actively address the variables of the research and actually teach grammar in the meaningful context of writing.

4. The fact that students are grammatically-challenged is someone else’s fault. “Students should know this stuff by now. The grade-level standards emphasize review of grammar, not introduction of grammar. I can only teach what I am supposed to teach. I can’t be responsible for other  teachers’ shortcomings. I have my grade-level standards to teach. If I spent all my efforts on what they already should know, students would never learn anything new. Hopefully, they’ll pick it up later, somehow.”

5. Students don’t like grammar and they don’t remember what they are taught. “Grammar is boring. I want to be a fun and interesting teacher. I’m angling for Teacher-of-the-Year and I’m not about to let grammar get in the way. Besides, the pay-offs from teaching grammar seem minimal, anyway. The students have learned the parts of speech every year and they couldn’t define or identify an adverb, if their lives depended on it. An adverbial clause? You’ve got to be kidding. I won’t drill and kill my students.”

6. We don’t know what we don’t know. Teachers teach from personal experience , as much as from professional development. Most teachers in their twenties, thirties, and forties had little grammatical instruction in their school years and few university professors have trained these teachers in grammar for the reasons already discussed. The pervasive “whole language” philosophy of the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s de-emphasized grammatical instruction and relegated it to the editing step within the writing process. “I didn’t learn grammar, and I turned out alright” is an often-thought, if not spoken, rationale for ditching grammar instruction.

My response? We need to teach grammar and make time for grammatical instruction and practice. Anything students need to know has to be “taught, not caught.” Students are whom we teach, not ever-changing standards, courses of study, fads, personal preferences, or personal agendas. Therefore, if students don’t know how to define, identify, and use adverbs, we need to teach them (an intentionally ambiguous pronoun reference that indicates both subjects—students and adverbs). We don’t need any more student casualties as a result of any “Great Grammar Debate.” Our ignorance is no excuse. We need to learn how to teach grammar in a meaningful writing context.

Why not make sense of grammar instruction with a curriculum that will help you efficiently integrate grammar into writing instruction? Throw away your ineffective D.O.L. openers and last-minute grammar test-prep practice, and teach all the grammar, mechanics, and spelling that most students need in 75 minutes per week. Teaching Grammar and Mechanics, provides a coherent scope and sequence of 64 no-prep Sentence Lifting lessons with Teacher Tips and Hints for the grammatically-challenged. The mechanics and grammar skills complement those found in the 72 TGM Worksheets and target the diagnostic needs indicated by the multiple-choice TGM Grammar and Mechanics Diagnostic Assessments.

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Grammar is an essential tool for success in school, work, and life. We are judged, sometimes quite severely, by the words we use and the way we use them in our speaking and writing. Our spoken and written words can betray us. They reflect our background, education, and ability to communicate. For example, many years ago, the principal walked into my room while my student teacher was delivering a lesson. After a few minutes, the principal signaled me to step outside.

“I will never hire that young man,” he said.

Shocked, I asked him why.

“On the board, he has a dangling modifier and he ended a sentence with a preposition.”

Sounds quite harsh, doesn’t it?  Not every educated adult attaches the same level of importance regarding the proper use of grammar as does that principal. However, many do. Following are the Top 40 Grammar Pet Peeves that irritate most Americans with tips to help you avoid these common grammatical errors.

1. Dangling Modifiers

Incorrect-Tossed high into the sky, the dog caught the Frisbee.

Correct-The dog caught the Frisbee, which had been tossed high into the sky.

Tip: Keep modifiers close to the words that they describe to avoid dangling modifiers.

2. Modals

Incorrect-I should of known that they could of gone yesterday.

Correct-I should have known that they could have gone yesterday.

Tip: The modals would, could, should, must, might, may are never combined with of.

3. Modifiers

Incorrect-That student is not feeling good.

Correct-That student is not feeling well.

Tip: Don’t use adjectives, e.g., good, in place of adverbs, e.g., well. Usually follow “_ing” with well, not good.

4. Comparative Modifiers (one or two syllables)

Incorrect-I picked the smallest piece of the two to be graciouser and because it was more easy to reach.

Correct- I picked the smaller piece of the two to be more gracious and because it was easier to reach.

Tip: Use “_er” for one or two syllable modifiers or more for two syllable modifiers, if more sounds better.

5. Comparative Modifiers (three or more syllables)

Incorrect-Each new song was wonderfuller than the old ones.

Correct-Each new song was more wonderful than the old ones.

Tip: Use more (less) for a three-syllable or longer modifier to compare two things.

6. Superlative Modifiers

Incorrect-Oswald is the more hyperactive of the three boys, but runs least quicker.

Correct-Oswald is the most hyperactive of the three boys, but runs least quickly.

Tip: Use most (least) for a three-syllable or longer modifier to compare three or more things. Always use most or least for adverbs ending in “_ly.”

7. Subjunctive cases (moods)

Incorrect-If I was a rich man, I could buy what I need.

Correct-If I were a rich man, I could buy what I need.

Tip: Use the subjunctive to communicate a doubt, a wish, or a guess.

8. Padding

Incorrect-Also, never, never repeat words or phrases, and avoid using very interesting, super nice words that contribute little to a sentence.

Correct-Never repeat words or phrases, and avoid using words that contribute little to a sentence.

Tip: Focus on brevity in writing. When in doubt, leave it out.

9. Preposition Placement

Incorrect-Prepositions are not good to end sentences with.

Correct-Do not end sentences with prepositions.

Tip: A preposition is a word that shows some relationship or position between a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun and its object. The preposition is always part of a phrase and comes before its object. The preposition asks “What?” and the object provides the answer. Ending sentences with prepositions eliminates their objects, so avoid these constructions whenever possible.

10. Parallel Structure

Incorrect-Swimming, to play tennis, and basketball are popular sports at the high school.

Correct-Swimming, tennis, and basketball are popular sports at the high school.

Tip: The term parallelism refers to a repeated grammatical construction of a word, a phrase, or a clause. Especially keep verb forms parallel within the same sentence.

11. Split Infinitives

Incorrect-It is a mistake to ever split an infinitive.

Correct-It is always a mistake to split an infinitive.

Tip: An infinitive has a to + the base form of a verb. Placing a word between the to and the base form of the verb can create confusion. If tempted to split the infinitive, brainstorm for better verbs.

12. Double Negatives

Incorrect-Never use no double negatives.

Correct-Don’t use double negatives.

Tip: A double negative can cancel each other out and create an unintended positive. For example, “I don’t really not like you” may prolong, rather than end, a relationship.

13. Noun-Verb Agreements (numbers)

Incorrect-The calculations indicates that there will be an economic downturn soon.

Correct-The calculations indicate that there will be an economic downturn soon.

Tip: If the noun is plural (ends in an s, the verb that acts upon that noun usually does not end in an s.

14. Verbing Nouns

Incorrect-Grammar is negatively impacting my ability to write.

Correct-Grammar has a negative impact on my ability to write.

Tip: Don’t make nouns into verbs. Also, avoid stringing nouns together, such as in “Top Grammar Pet Peeves.” However, no one would search for “Top Grammatical Pet Peeves.”

Pronoun Pests

15. Subject Case Pronouns (used as appositives)

Incorrect-Everyone came earlier than her.

Correct-Everyone came earlier than she.

Tip: Use the subject case pronoun if the pronoun is part of an appositive, such as after than or as. An appositive is a noun or pronoun placed next to another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it. Re-order the sentence to check if the pronoun sounds right, e.g., “She came earlier than everyone.”

16. Subject Case Pronouns (compound subjects)

Incorrect-Her and Muffy play video games.

Correct-She and Muffy play video games.

Tip: Drop other nouns or pronouns when there is a compound subject (two or more subjects), and check if the remaining pronoun sounds right, e.g., “Her plays video games” sounds bad while “She plays video games” sounds good.

17. Subject Case Pronouns (pronoun order)

Incorrect-I and Zelda enjoy the beach.

Correct-Zelda and I enjoy the beach.

Tip: Remember that English is a polite language; the first person pronouns (I, me, ours, mine) are always placed last when combined with other nouns or pronouns.

18. Subject Case Pronouns (serving as predicate nominatives)

Incorrect-The students who got into trouble are them.

Correct- The students who got into trouble are they.

Tip: A predicate nominative follows a “to be” verb (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been) and identifies or refers to the subject. Re-order the sentence to check if the pronoun sounds right, e.g., “They are the students who got into trouble.”

19. Object Case Pronouns (serving as objects of prepositions)

Incorrect-The fly buzzed between you and I.

Correct- The fly buzzed between you and me.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is an object of a preposition. A preposition shows some relationship or position between the preposition and  its object (a proper noun, a common noun, or a pronoun). The preposition asks “What?” and the object provides the answer.

20. Object Case Pronouns (serving as direct objects)

Incorrect- The challenge excited we.

Correct-The challenge excited us.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is the direct object. The direct object receives the action of the verb and answers “What?” or “Who?”

21. Object Case Pronouns (serving as indirect objects)

Incorrect- Robert gave they a king-size candy bar.

Correct- Robert gave them a king-size candy bar.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is an indirect object of a verb. The indirect object is placed between a verb and its direct object. It answers “To What?” “To Whom,” ” For What?” or “For Whom?”

22. Object Case Pronouns (serving as appositives)

Incorrect-The teacher yelled at two students, Zippy and I.

Correct-The teacher yelled at two students, Zippy and me.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the direct object is described by an appositive phrase (a phrase that identifies or explains another noun or pronoun placed next to it).

23. Object Case Pronouns (connected to infinitives)

Incorrect-I want we to give the speech.

Correct-I want us to give the speech.

Tip: Use the object case pronoun if the pronoun is connected to an infinitive. An infinitive has a to + the base form of a verb.

24. Gender Pronouns

Incorrect-Everyone has their own problems or Everyone has his/her own problems.

Correct-Everyone has his own problems (Yes, English is a masculine-based language) or better… All people have their own problems.

Tip: To be inclusive (and politically correct), make pronoun references plural. Avoid the wordy and confusing “his or hers for him and her.”

25. Reflexive Pronouns

Incorrect-The party was for Bob and myself, and I allowed me the privilege of attending the celebration.

Correct-The party was for Bob and me, and I allowed myself the privilege of attending the celebration.

Tip: Don’t use reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself(ves), himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves) in place of object case pronouns. Reflexives refer to the subject. An intensive pronoun intensifies an action, e.g., “I want to do it myself.”

26. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to ambiguous references)

Incorrect-When Bobby asked for help, they asked why.

Problem—Who are the they?

Correct-When Bobby asked for help, his friends asked why.

Tip: An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers. Make sure antecedents are specific. Otherwise, the pronoun reference may be confusing.

27. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to the objects of prepositions)

Incorrect-In Twain’s The Celebrated Frog of Calaveras County, he uses political humor.

Problem—Who, or what, is he?

Correct-In Twain’s The Celebrated Frog of Calaveras County, the author uses political humor.

Tip: Don’t have a pronoun refer to the object of a prepositional phrase, e.g., “of Calaveras County.”

28. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to this, that, these, those, it, its)

Incorrect-He made an egg, put the dog food in its bowl, and put this on his toast to eat.

Problem—What is this? Whose is his?

Correct-He made an egg and put it on his toast. Then, he put the dog food in its bowl.

Tip: Make sure that the singular pronouns this and that and the plural pronouns these and those specifically refer to what is intended. Keep these pronouns close to their references.

29. Pronoun Antecedents (referring to possessives)

Incorrect-In San Diego’s famous zoo, they treat their zoo-keepers well.

Problem—Who are the they and their?

Correct- In San Diego’s famous zoo, the animals treat their zoo-keepers well.

Tip: Don’t have a pronoun refer to a possessive antecedent. A possessive is a common noun, proper noun, or pronoun that shows ownership.

30. The This, That, These, Those Pronouns (serving as demonstrative adjectives)

Incorrect-I like these over there.

Correct-I like those over there.

Tip: Use this and these for objects within reach; use that and those for objects not within reach.

31. The Who Pronoun

Incorrect-Whom did it, and why?

Correct-Who did it, and why?

Tip: The pronoun who is in the subject (nominative) case. The who takes the role of the subject. Try substituting he for who and rephrase, if necessary. If it sounds right, use the who, e.g. “Him did it” sounds bad while “He did it” sounds good.

32. The Whom Pronoun

Incorrect-I like who you gave the award, but to who does this letter concern?

Correct-I like whom you gave the award, but to whom does this letter concern?

Tip: The pronoun whom is in the objective case. In other words, it is takes the place of the direct object, the indirect object of the verb, or the object of the preposition. Try substituting him for whom and rephrase, if necessary. If it sounds right, use whom. “I like he” and “to he does this letter concern” sound bad while “I like him” and “to him does this letter concern” sound good.

33. The Who Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses)

Incorrect-The man which showed me the car was friendly.

Correct-The man who showed me the car was friendly.

Tip: When beginning a relative clause, use who to refer to specific people.

34. The That Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses)

Incorrect-The movie which we watched was entertaining.

Correct-The movie that we watched was entertaining.

Tip: The pronoun that can refer to unspecific, or general, people or things. Use the pronoun that when the clause is needed to understand or restrict the meaning of the rest of the sentence.

35. The Which Pronoun (serving at the start of relative clauses)

Incorrect-A dog, which is compliant, is easy to train.

Correct-A Golden Retriever, which is compliant, is easy to train.

Tip: The pronoun which can only refer to specific things. Use the pronoun which in clauses that provide additional, but not necessary information to the rest of the sentence.

36. Indefinite Pronouns (general singular)

Incorrect-Everyone are ready for lunch.

Correct-Everyone is ready for lunch.

Tip: An indefinite singular pronoun does not refer to a definite noun. The following indefinite pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, no one, one, somebody, someone, and something. Look at the second  part of the compound word, e.g. something, to determine singular or plural for many of these indefinite pronouns.

37. Indefinite Pronouns (general plural)

Incorrect-Several gives him advice.

Correct-Several give him advice.

Tip: An indefinite plural pronoun does not refer to  definite nouns. The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and several. Indefinite plural pronouns are usually not compound words.

38. Indefinite Pronouns (singular determining quantity or measurement)

Incorrect-More of the food were given to the homeless.

The word clue is food.

Correct-More of the food was given to the homeless.

Tip: Indefinite pronouns that express quantity or measurement may be singular or plural depending upon the surrounding word clues. Pay special attention to the object of a preposition word clue connecting to these pronouns. Singular Indefinite Pronouns: all the food, any of this, half of it, more of that, most of it, none of that, other one, some child

39. Indefinite Pronouns (plural determining quantity or measurement)

Incorrect-More boys seems to be playing sports these days.

The word clue is boys.

Correct-More boys seem to be playing sports these days.

Tip: Indefinite pronouns that express quantity or measurement may be singular or plural depending upon the surrounding word clues. Pay special attention to the object of a preposition word clue connecting to these pronouns. Plural Indefinite Pronouns: all girls, any of these, half of those, more boys, most friends, none of those, other friends, some of them

40. Possessive Pronouns

Incorrect-Bilbo’s faking won’t help his success as much as him planning.

Correct-Bilbo’s faking won’t help his success as much as his planning.

Tip: A possessive pronoun (my, your, his, her, its, their, our), not  a subject or object case pronoun, must be connected to a gerund. A gerund is the “_ing” form of a noun.

Resource: Teaching Grammar and Mechanics ©2003 Pennington Publishing.

Mark Pennington’s comprehensive curricula: Teaching Grammar and Mechanics is a wonderful resource to teach grammar and mechanics skills. The diagnostic assessments help teachers to use the data to differentiate instruction.

Grammar/Mechanics, Writing grammar, grammar pet peeves, language pet peeves, mechanics, parts of speech

1. A common noun is a person, place, idea, or thing. It is capitalized only at the start of a sentence. It can be a single word, a group of words, or a hyphenated word.

Examples:

The girl was learning to drive                

-person (girl)

next to the ocean;                                

-place (ocean)

It takes self-control                              

-idea (self-control)

to earn a driver’s license.                     

-thing (license)

2. A proper noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. It is always capitalized. It may be a single word, a group of words (with or without abbreviations), or a hyphenated word.

Examples:

Josh was honored                                

-person (Josh)

at U.S. Memorial Auditorium               

-place (U.S. Memorial Auditorium)

with the Smith-Lee Award.                  

-thing (Smith-Lee Award)

3. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun(s). It can be in the subject case, acting as a “do-er” of the action in the subject case, or acting as a “receiver” of the action in the object case. Pronouns can also serve as singular or plural possessives to show ownership.

Examples:

She walked to town.                            

-subject case (She)

I gave her a basket.                             

-object case (her)

It was his wallet.                                  

-possessive (his)

4. An adjective describes a proper noun, a common noun, or a pronoun by describing how many, what kind, or which one.

Examples:

The five teammates                              

-How Many? (five)

took the tiring trip                                

-What Kind? (tiring)

to that arena across town.                    

-Which One? (that)

5. A verb shows a physical or mental action or it describes a state of being.

Examples:

She works long hours,                         

-physical action (works)

but knows that                         

-mental action (knows)

there is more to life than work. 

-state of being (is)

6. An adverb describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb by describing how, when, where, or what degree.

Examples:

Trey walked slowly                              

-How? (slowly)

because he had arrived early                

-When? (early)

to the place where                               

-Where? (where)

he knew very well.                               

-What Degree? (very well)

7. A preposition is a word that has a relationship with a common noun, a proper noun, or a pronoun. The preposition is always part of a phrase comes and comes before its object. The preposition asks “What?” and the object provides the answer.

Examples:        

The politician voted against the law       

-(against) what?…the law

through the secret ballot.                      

-(through) what?…the secret ballot

8. A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses together. There are three kinds:

-Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses used in the same way.

Example:

The student tries, but does not always succeed.                        

-(but)

-Correlative conjunctions are paired conjunctions that connect words, phrases, or clauses used in the same way.

Example:

Either you must tell the police, or I will.                                     

-(either, or)

-Subordinating conjunctions come at the beginning of adverb clauses. These clauses restrict the meaning of the rest of the sentence.

Example:

Although he is often late, Ryan shows up to work every day.    

-(Although)

9. An article determines number or identification of a noun and always precedes a noun. The “a” article signals a singular noun beginning with a consonant. The “an” article signals a plural noun beginning with a vowel.

Examples:

A lion and an elephant are considered the “kings of the jungle.” 

-(a, an, the)

10. An interjection is a word or phrase that shows surprise or emotion. It is usually followed by an exclamation point.

Example:

Hey! Stop that.                                                                        

-(Hey!)

Find whole-class diagnostic grammar and mechanics assessments, enabling 4th–12th grade teachers to differentiate instruction with 72 targeted worksheets in Teaching Grammar and Mechanics. The book has a full year of 15-minute sentence lifting lessons with standards-based mechanics, spelling, and grammar skills that teach all the conventions needed for successful writing.

Grammar/Mechanics, Writing conventions, grammar, mechanics, parts of speech, sentence structure, subjects and predicates, writing rules

In the 1980s, a multi-dimensional educational philosophy captured the minds and hearts of American educators. This philosophy developed into the whole language movement. Although widely discredited today, the philosophical rationale has many lingering effects regarding how  students are taught to read, spell, speak, and write. In a nutshell, those adhering to this philosophy found learning to be both constructive and developmental. In other words, students will learn the “parts,” i.e. discreet skills when they deem them to be relevant to their immediate needs to help in their learning of the “whole.”

For the purposes of this article, whole language “taught” that direct grammatical instruction should be avoided as it interferes with priority of meaning-making in writing. In the classroom, grammar books collected dust and grammar was relegated to the editing stage (the last stage) of the writing process. That is, if and when it received attention at all.

The grammar myths that have held over from the whole language movement are summarized, followed by their long over-due “de-bunkings.”

1. Grammar is acquired naturally; it does not need to be taught. There is certainly a strong correlation between oral language skills and written grammar skills. However, oral learning is not always an efficient teacher. In fact, it can be quite a mixed bag. For every proper modeling of the pronoun in the sentence It is I, students hear at least five models of the incorrect It is me. Grammar as it is caught must be complemented by a grammar that is taught. 

2. Grammar is a meaningless collection of rules—most of which don’t work half the time. This myth may have developed from mindless “drill and kill” grammatical exercises with no application to student writing. Actually, our English grammar is remarkably flexible and consistent.

3. Grammar cannot be learned by students with some learning styles or disabilities. While it may be true that students learn language differently, at different rates, and vary in proficiency, there has been no research to show that some students cannot learn grammar.

4. English grammar cannot be learned by second language learners. Some teachers think that students who speak other languages get confused between the primary language and English grammars. The research proves otherwise. Intuitively, many of us have significantly increased our own knowledge of English grammar by taking a foreign language. 

Find whole-class diagnostic grammar and mechanics assessments, enabling 4th–12th grade teachers to differentiate instruction with 72 targeted worksheets in Teaching Grammar and Mechanics. The book has a full year of 15-minute sentence lifting lessons with standards-based mechanics, spelling, and grammar skills that teach all the conventions needed for successful writing.

Grammar/Mechanics DOL, grammar, mechanics, sentence lifting, writing conventions, writing rules

Although the American-English spelling system has evolved from many sources, there are definable patterns that are well-worth learning. These spelling patterns, or spelling rules, all have exceptions; however, they are minimal. It is always efficient to memorize the rule, rather than all of the exceptions. In baseball, batters are taught to “look for the fastball, and adjust for the curve.” The same is true in the American-English spelling system. The following are the key spelling rules that work most of the time in the American-English spelling system.

1. The i before e Rule

Usually spell i before e (believe), but spell e before i after a c (receive) and when the letters are pronounced as a long /a/ sound (neighbor).

2. The Final y Rule

Keep the y when adding an ending if the word ends in a vowel, then a y (delay-delayed), or if the ending begins with an i (copy-copying). Change the y to i when adding an ending if the word ends in a consonant, then a y (pretty-prettiest). 

3. The Silent e Rule

Drop the e (have-having) at the end of a syllable if the ending begins with a vowel. Keep the e (close-closely) when the ending begins with a consonant, has a soft /c/ or /g/ sound, then an “ous” or “able” (peaceable, gorgeous), or if it ends in “ee”, “oe”, or “ye” (freedom, shoeing, eyeing).

4. The Double the Consonant Rule

Double the consonant, when adding on an ending (permitted), if all three of these conditions are met: 1. the last syllable has the accent (per / mit)  2. the last syllable ends in a vowel, then a consonant (permit). 3. the ending you add begins with a vowel (ed).

5. The Ending “an” or “en” Rule 

End a word with “ance”, “ancy”, or “ant” (vacancy, arrogance) if the root before has a hard /c/ or /g/ sound or if the root ends with “ear” or “ure” (clearance, insurance). End a word with “ence”, “ency”, or “ent” if the root before has a soft /c/ or /g/ sound (magnificent, emergency), after “id” (residence), or if the root ends with “ere” (reverence).

6. The “able” or “ible” Rule 

End a word with “able” if the root before has a hard /c/ or /g/ sound (despicable, navigable), after a complete root word (teachable), or after a silent e (likeable). End a word with “ible” if the root has a soft /c/ or /g/ sound (reducible, legible), after an “ss” (admissible), or after an incomplete root word (audible).

7. The Ending “ion” Rule 

Spell “sion” (illusion) for the final zyun sound or the final shun sound (expulsion, compassion) if after an l or s. Spell “cian” (musician) for a person and “tion” (condition) in most all other cases.

8. The Plurals Rule

Spell plural nouns with an s (dog-dogs), even those that end in y (day-days) or those that end in a vowel, then an o (stereo-stereos). Spell “es” after the sounds of /s/, /x/, /z/, /ch/, or /sh/ (box-boxes) or after a consonant, then an o (potato-potatoes). Change the y to i and add “es” when the word ends in a consonant, then a y (ferry-ferries). Change the “fe” or “lf” ending to “ves” (knife-knives, shelf-shelves).

Find  spelling rules with memorable raps and songs on CD, with a comprehensive whole-class diagnostic spelling assessment, enabling 4th–12th grade teachers to differentiate instruction with 35 remedial and 32 advanced spelling-vocabulary worksheets, spelling word lists/tests,  Greek and Latin affixes/roots, syllable practice, and spelling-vocabulary games, and more in Mark’s book, Teaching Spelling and Vocabulary.

Spelling/Vocabulary conventions, differentiating spelling instruction, mechanics, phonics, spelling, spelling rules, spelling tests, vocabulary

Grading essays with specific comments can be very time-consuming. Rather than simplistically giving a wholistic score without specific comments, use the editing tools of Microsoft Word® to give prescriptive comments and still save time. These are comments that students will actually read. Require students to modify their writing, according to your comments, by using the Track Changes function in Microsoft Word®, to help students refine their essays.

Here are the most frequently used prescriptive comments for essay commentary. A quick one-page “Editing Short-Cuts” reference follows. To program these comments into Microsoft Word®, simply open “Tools” and then “Autocorrect Options.” Put e1 into “Replace” and then copy and paste Use commas before or after speaker tags. Example: She said, “Call me at home.”  into “With.” Continue with the rest of the list.

On the students’ Microsoft Word® essays, click the cursor where you want to make a comment. Open “Insert” and then “Comments.” Type in e1 and the comments with appear in the comment bubble.

Mechanics

e1. Use commas before or after speaker tags. Example: She said, “Call me at home.”

e2. Use commas to set apart appositives. Example: That man, the one with the hat, left.

e3. Use commas after each item in lists (except the last). Example: John, Jane, and Jose left early.

e4. Use commas after introductory words or phrases. Example: First of all, you should listen to me.

e5. Use commas between number dates and years. Example: It all happened on May 3, 1999.

e6. Use commas between geographical places. Example: She lived in Tampa, Florida.

e7. Use commas after greetings/closings in personal letters. Example: Dear Ralph, …Sincerely, …

e8. Use commas after nouns of direct address. Example: Kristin, leave some for your sister.

e9. Use commas before conjunctions to join two independent clauses. Example: I liked her, and she liked me.

e10. Use exclamation points for surprise or strong emotions. Example: The decision really shocked me!

e11. Use quotation marks before and after direct quotations. Example: Sue said, “I’m going to bed.”

e12. Use quotation marks before and after songs, poems, document titles, book chapters, magazine articles, and short story titles. Example: Whenever I hear “Clementine,” it reminds me of “Leaves of Grass” and “The Gettysburg Address.”

e13. Use colons after business letter greetings. Example: Dear Sirs:

e14. Use colons to introduce lists. Example: The following: shoes, pants, and…

e15. Use colons between numbers in relationship. Example: 8:52 P.M.

e16. Use semicolons to join independent clauses without conjunctions. Example: Jamal went to school; Larry met him there.

e17. Underline movie, television show, book, magazine, play, and work of art titles. 

e18. Use apostrophes for contractions. Example: I can’t see what they’re doing.

e19. Use apostrophes for singular and plural possessives. Example: Tom’s and the girls’ coats were red.

e20. Use parentheses to explain or define. Example: The hombre (man) rode off alone. 

e21. Capitalize proper nouns (a name that is given to special persons, places, or things). Example: Ryan visited the Holocaust Museum in Los Angeles.

e22. Capitalize holidays, dates, groups, organizations, and businesses. Example: Last Easter on March 24, 2002 the P.T.A. and McDonald’s helped out.

e23. Capitalize the first, last, and any important words in titles. Example: Prince Charles’s favorite book was Islands of Adventure.

e24. Capitalize the names of languages and peoples. Example: He spoke Spanish to the Indians.

e25. Capitalize special events and historical periods. Example: The New Year’s Day Parade celebrates the Year of the Dog.

Spelling

e26. The “i” before “e” Rule—Usually spell “i” before “e” (believe), but spell “e” before “i” after a “c” (receive) and when the letters are pronounced as a long /a/ sound (neighbor).

e27. The Final “y” Rule—Keep the “y” when adding an ending if the word ends in a vowel, then a “y” (delay-delayed), or if the ending begins with an “i” (copy-copying). Change the “y” to “i” if the word ends in a consonant, then a “y” (pretty-prettiest). 

e28. The Silent “e” Rule—Drop the “e” (have-having) if the ending begins with a vowel. Keep the “e” (close-closely) if the ending begins with a consonant, has a soft /c/ or /g/ sound, then an “ous” or “able,” or if it ends in “ee”, “oe”, or “ye.”

e29. The Double the Consonant Rule—Double consonants, when adding on endings if these conditions are met: 1. last syllable is accented (per/MIT) 2. last syllable ends in a vowel–consonant (permit) and 3. ending begins with a vowel (ed).

e30. The Ending “an”–“en” Rule—End words with “ance”, “ancy”, or “ant” if the root has a hard /c/ or /g/ sound or it ends with “ear” or “ure.” End words with “ence”, “ency”, or “ent” if the root has a soft /c/ or /g/ sound, after “id,” or it ends with “ere.”

e31. The “able”–“ible” Rule—End words with “able” if the root has a hard /c/ or /g/ sound, after a complete root word, or after a silent “e.” End words with “ible” if the root has a soft /c/ or /g/ sound, an “ss,” or after an incomplete root word.

e32. The Ending “ion” Rule—Spell “sion” (illusion) for the final zyun sound or the final shun sound (expulsion, compassion) if after an “l” or “s.” Spell “cian” (musician) for a person and “tion” (condition) in most all other cases.

e33. The Plurals Rule—Add an “s” even with “y” or vowel—“o” endings. Spell “es” after /s/, /x/, /z/, /ch/, or /sh/ sounds or a consonant— “o.” Change a “y” to “i” and add “es” when the word ends in a consonant—“y.” Change “fe” or “lf” ending to “ves.”

Writing Errors

e34. —=Delete

e35. vt=verb tense error

e36. ww=wrong word

e37. ¶=needs new paragraph

e38. v=Close gap

e39. ~=Reverse

e40. ro=run-on sentence

e41. frag=sentence fragment

e42. ‘=Insert an apostrophe

e43. awk=awkward

e44. mm=misplaced modifier

Writing Revisions

e45. dev=inadequate development

e46. irr=irrelevant

e47. nc=not clear

e48. red=redundant

e49. sup=add support evidence

e50. trans=needs transition

e51. wordy=excessively wordy

e52. //=lacks parallel structure

e53. voice—needs third person

e54. slang—informal language

e55. figure of speech—Avoid idiomatic expressions in formal writing.

e56. verb—Too many “to be” verbs

e57. Abbv—Do not use abbreviations in formal writing

e58. cont=Don’t use contractions in formal writing

e59. wc=word choice (word overused)

e60. db neg=double negative

e61. pv=passive voice unnecessary

e62. Rhetorical question in which answer is assumed

e63. Too many prepositional phrase strings

e64. Avoid (parenthetical) remarks.

e65. Don’t start sentences with coordinating conjunctions, e.g. but, and, so, or.

e66. Don’t split infinitives, e.g. “to carefully walk”

e67. Don’t end sentences with prepositions.

e68. Don’t refer to your own writing.

Writing Content

e69. def=Define this term.

e70. spf=Get more specific.

e71. cit=Needs citation

e72. Needs sentence variety

e73. Off topic—focus is off of central idea

e74. Overstated idea—exaggerated

e75. seq=sequence problems

e76. Inconsistent argument

e77. Needs topic sentence

e78. Needs variety of types of evidence

e79. Needs another introduction strategy

e80. Needs variety of introduction strategies

e81. Thesis is unclear—must state purpose or point of view.

e82. Re-state the thesis to introduce the conclusion.

e83. Needs another conclusion strategy

e84. Needs variety of conclusion strategies

e85. Proper Heading (Left, Top, Four Lines): John Doe–Mr. Pennington–English-language Arts–7 March, 2009  Then, have two double spaces before indenting your first paragraph one Tab space.

e86. Set one inch margins; double space; use Times New Roman 12 (no bold face); and indent each paragraph one inch–don’t skip lines between paragraphs.

Editing Marks Short-Cuts

Mechanics

1. Commas—speaker tags

2. Commas—appositives

3. Commas—lists

4. Commas—introductory word(s)

5. Commas—dates

6. Commas—geography

7. Commas—letters

8. Commas—direct address

9. Commas—before conjunctions 

in independent clauses

10. Exclamation points

11. Quotation marks for dialog

12. Quotation marks—titles 

13. Colons—letters 

14. Colons—lists 

15. Colons—relationships 

16. Semicolons

17. Underline titles 

18. Apostrophes—contractions 

19. Apostrophes—possessives 

20. Parentheses 

21. Capitalize—proper nouns

22. Capitalize—holidays, dates, groups, organizations, and businesses

23. Capitalize—titles

24. Capitalize—languages and peoples

25. Capitalize—special events and historical periods

Spelling

26. The “i” before “e” Rule

27. The Final “y” Rule 

28. The Silent “e” Rule

29. The Double the Consonant Rule

30. The Ending “an”–“en” Rule

31. The “able”–“ible” Rule

32. The Ending “ion” Rule—

33. The Plurals Rule—

Writing Errors

34. —=Delete

35. vt=verb tense error

36. ww=wrong word

37. ¶=needs new paragraph

38. v=Close gap

39. ~=Reverse

40. ro=run-on sentence

41. frag=sentence fragment

42. ‘=Insert an apostrophe

43. awk=awkward

44. mm=misplaced modifier

Writing Revisions

45. dev=inadequate development

46. irr=irrelevant

47. nc=not clear

48. red=redundant

49. sup=add support evidence

50. trans=needs transition

51. wordy=excessively wordy

52. //=lacks parallel structure

53. voice—needs third person

54. slang—informal language

55. figure of speech 

56. verb—Too many “to be” verbs

57. Abbv—Do not use abbreviations 

58. cont=Don’t use contractions 

59. wc=word choice (word overused)

60. db neg=double negative

61. pv=passive voice unnecessary

62. Rhetorical question 

63. Too many prepositional phrase strings

64. Avoid (parenthetical) remarks.

65. Don’t start sentences with coordinating conjunctions

66. Don’t split infinitives

67. Don’t end sentences with prepositions

68. Don’t refer to your own writing.

Writing Content

69. def=Define this term.

70. spf=Get more specific.

71. cit=Needs citation

72. Needs sentence variety

73. Off topic

74. Overstated idea

75. seq=sequence problems

76. Inconsistent argument

77. Needs topic sentence

78. Needs variety of types of evidence

79. Needs another introduction strategy

80. Needs variety of introduction strategies

81. Thesis is unclear

82. Re-state the thesis 

83. Needs another conclusion strategy

84. Needs variety of conclusion strategies

85. Needs proper MLA heading

86. MLA formatting needs work

Grammar/Mechanics, Writing essay, grammar, mechanics, writing strategies